A BRIEF OVERVIEW OF THE PREVIOUS CLASS (05:00 PM)

JUNAGARH (05:06 PM)

• The Nawab of Junagarh was Mohabbat Khan, It had no border with Pakistan, also it had a small state on Saurashtra Coast. The majority population was Hindu which wanted integration with secular India. 
• It was surrounded by Indian territory. 
• Problems- Announced accession to Pakistan and Shah Nawaj Bhutto of Muslim League (1906) joined the government of the state. 
• Solution
• A people's movement began that forced Nawab to flee, therefore Patel's strategy of the threat of Anarchy was in operation. 
• Now Shah Nawaj Bhutto requested military help from Pakistan but Jinnah refused as his main focus was J&K and Junagarh was just a bargaining chip. 
• Indian troops entered Junagarh and a plebiscite in 1948 led to Merger with India. 

PARTITION AND ITS AFTERMATH (05:13 PM)

• Partition and its Aftermath

  Violence @ Migration Rehabilitation  West NWFP Baluchistan Sindh Punjab East Sylhet East Bengal Strategy- Immediate- Short-term/Long-term.

• Responsibility for Communal Violence during Partition
• 1) 3rd June plan 1947- Here British decided to exit India, one year in advance i.e. by 15th August 1947 instead of 30th June 1948 as stated in Atlee's statement of February 1947. This led to poor preparation for partition on part of the government and people.
• Example- Punjab governor Jenkins- "Peaceful partition will take years and not 72 days".
• Commander in Chief Lockhart (15th August- December 1947)- "Punjab Tragedy won't have happened if the partition had been delayed by one year".
• Mountbatten did not want responsibility for communal violence and therefore escalated British exit. 
• 2) Delay in announcing boundary commission award-
• Under the Mountbatten Plan and Indian Independence Act 1947, two commissions were set up under Radcliffe, a British Jurist, for boundary demarcation to be done before or after 15th August 1947. The award was ready before 15th August but announced on 17th August so the British don't have responsibility for violence during migration
• 3) Radcliffe did not have any past experience in boundary demarcation nor he had much prior knowledge of India. Also, the commission had no boundary experts and the award was to be prepared with a deadline of six weeks. 
• Therefore people did not know on 15th August if they are on the right side of the border which led to last-minute chaos. 
• Violence (05:42)
• Important cities like Calcutta and Amritsar got divided into communal zones. Women were raped and at times killed by family members to save the family's honour. Overall roughly 10 lakh people were killed and 80 lakhs in total migrated.
• Rehabilitation
• Two classes of migrants to India- The rich who preplanned and came before 15th August and the second one was the poor who had hope of honourable living in Pakistan but then came due to communal violence (Upto September- October 1947)
• Indian Response
• A department of rehabilitation was set up with a special cadre of officers. Many refugee camps were set up as an immediate measure. 
• Example- Kurukshetra camp received migration from Pakistan Punjab
• Kolvada camp in Bombay received migrants from Sindh.
• In total 200 camps for Migrants from Pakistan and Punjab and 5 camps for migrants from Sindh in Mumbai/ Bombay. 
• As a short-term measure, Temporary plots of 4 Acres were given to every family along with loans to Buy seeds and equipment so they could start cultivation.
• Permanent Rehabilitation 
• It was a rehabilitation operation. A rehabilitation secretariat was set up in Jalandhar [* Secretariat- Will report to Rehabilitation department]. Its job was to collect, verify and execute land claims. 7000 officials were working here at any time. 
• Challenges (06:03 PM)

• Land left behind

  2.7 million hectare By Hindus and Sikhs in Pakistan Punjab 1.9 million hectares By Muslims in Indian Punjab

• Fertility was greater in Pakistan Punjab as it was better irrigated. Also, Indian western Punjab was better irrigated than Indian eastern Punjab therefore the dual challenge of lesser land available for distribution and lower fertility
• Applications were invited for permanent plots and the basis of allocation was to be land left behind in Pakistan. 
• Verification of land claims was done via assemblies of people, so ex-neighbours could verify claims by a family. Further to resolve the problem of overclaiming, false claims were punished by decreasing land to be allotted ideally and even a brief spell of jail. The claimed inflation was 25%. 

CONTRIBUTION OF SARDAR TARLOK SINGH, ICS (06:14 PM)

• He gave concepts of Standard Acre and Graded Cut. 
• One Standard Acre = Land that could produce 10-11 mounds of rice (1 mound= 40 KG). 
• This solved the problem of inequity as people now got more land in Indian eastern Punjab which had lower fertility than Indian Western Punjab. For example- One Acre is equal to one standard Acre in the west and 4 Acres are equal to one standard Acre in Indian eastern Punjab. 
• Graded cuts meant more percentage cuts in the land allotted when more land was claimed. Example- 25% cut for claims between 1- 10 Acres. 30% cut for 10-30 Acres and even 95% cut for claims greater than 500 Acres. 
• By November 1949, Tarlok Singh made 2.5 lakh allotments. Also, review applications led to 80000 acres changing hands again. 
• By 1951 task was completed in the West, however, cultural loss to Sikhs could not be compensated and they lost important Gurudwaras in Pakistan Punjab. 
• Rehabilitation in the East- 
• There was a long-term inflow of refugees for years due to periodic communal riots in East Pakistan (* EP)
• The poor economy of East Pakistan 
• After 1971, Inflow continued due to the poor economy of Bangladesh. Migration caused socio-cultural and political problems in India in form of Ethnic and Linguistic tensions and even insurgency. Example- ULFA 1979 in Assam. [* Wanted independent Assam]. 
• There was the problem of language for migrants as Bengali immigrants had to be settled even outside Bengal as very less property was left behind by those who migrated to East Pakistan. [* Connect with modern history-  Permanent Settlement in Bengal, therefore masses were tenants ryots and less number of Muslim ryots]. 

REORGANIZATION OF STATES (06:50 PM)

• During the Home rule league movement, Tilak demanded the creation of regions based on language.
• In 1917, Congress also accepted formally the linguistic reorganization of states. In the 1920 Nagpur INC Session, Provincial Congress Committees were set up on linguistic lines.
• Dhar Commission by Constituent Assembly in 1948 rejected demand due to concerns of national unity as a partition on religious lines recently, thus, did not want the rise of communalism on basis of language. 
• In 1948 JVP Committee setup (Jawahar Lal Nehru, Vallabhbhai Patel, Pittabhi Sitaramayya) favoured a linguistic basis for reorganization but argued that now was not the right time due to concerns for national unity. 
• REFER TO THE HANDOUT

TRIBAL CONSOLIDATION (07:08 PM)

• Revise the reasons for tribal revolts from Modern Indian History.
• Broadly they always enjoy autonomy and preserve their unique identity but under the British era their life was turned upside down due to- 
• a) Autonomy hurt by application of British criminal and civil law
• b) British land revenue systems led to an influx of and domination by outsiders i.e. Zamindars of plains, Revenue farmers, Merchants, and Moneylenders 
• c) There was the loss of land to these outsiders and also due to railroad projects and mining projects in form of land acquisition for these projects. Further, there was the loss of home and loss of access to forest produce due to British forest laws that classified forests into Reserved, Protected, and Open to all. 
• d) Forced labour on railroad projects etc 
• e) Hunting was banned and so was Jhum cultivation as the British wanted settled peasant communities for ease of land revenue collection and for greater land revenue collection. 
• f) From 1813, Christian missionaries' activities threatened Tribal identity.  

CHALLENGES FOR TRIBAL CONSOLIDATION (07:31 PM)

• Post-independence biggest challenge was tribal consolidation 
• A. Policy of isolation-
• Proposed by British anthropologist Verrier Elwin.
• He argued that tribals are special people who must be kept in separation from the rest of society to preserve and conserve their unique culture and ethnic identity. 
• He suggested the creation of National Parks where tribal people could live safely without being victims of overhasty and unregulated development/ modernization.
• [* Liberals- give best ideas of the age to Indians- The problem was that the best idea was synonymous with British ideas, therefore best language became English, the best education became Western education, best religion became Christianity. Therefore, it became a loss of identity]
• However, this policy was viewed as a proposal to create a museum or a zoo and therefore rejected. 
• B. Policy of assimilation
• This was proposed by G S Ghurye (Father of Indian sociology).
• He said that tribals are simply "Backward Hindus" who need to be brought into the mainstream but in that process, their unique identity may be lost. 
• C. Policy of integration
• It is also called as "Tribal Panchsheel, 1952". It was given by J L Nehru (* Middle Path). 
• This policy argued that tribal areas and tribals (* Connect with Constitution of India and Scheduled tribes and other traditional forest dwellers (recognition of rights) Act 2006) must progress but in their own way (* Link orientalism- Rule India the India way). 
• Principles of Tribal Panchsheel, 1952
• a) Tribals should be allowed to develop according to their own genius (* i.e. as per their capability and skills. for Example- maybe traditional medicine as against pure allopathy & maybe bamboo bridges were feasible ). 
• b) Tribal rights in land and forest should be respected (* Scheduled tribes and other traditional forest dwellers (recognition of rights) Act 2006 or FRA 2006 and also link 5th schedule powers of Governors @ land)
• c) Tribals should be trained to undertake administration and development tasks without too many outsiders being inducted. (* I.e lower bureaucracy should be tribals, maybe doctors should be tribals, Teachers should be tribals). 
• d) Tribal development should be undertaken without disturbing tribal social and cultural institutions. (* Example- Eklavya model residential schools where tribal culture is promoted + delegating implementation authority to Self-help groups led by the tribal leader). 
• e)  Index of tribal development should be the quality of life and not the money spent. (* Longer road, uneconomic but prevents digging a tunnel through a hill worshipped by tribals); (* Money spent as indicated by utilization certificates submitted by DM is an important metric today to judge the quantum of development). 

CONSTITUTIONAL PROVISIONS (08:04 PM)

• Article 366- Definitions
• [* Article 366 (25) defines STs as tribes or tribal communities as defined in Article 342]
• Article 342- Scheduled Tribes
• STs are those tribes or tribal communities that are in notifications issued by President, and parliament may include or exclude any tribe from this notification. 
• Article 244- Administration of scheduled areas and tribal areas
• Article 244(1) says that the 5th schedule will govern the administration of scheduled areas and STs
• Article 244(2) says that the 6th schedule will govern the administration of Tribal areas in Tripura, Meghalaya, Mizoram, and Assam
• 5th schedule 
• It talks about the tribal advisory council that is to advise the State government on the welfare of STs. Also, the governor may make regulations for the good government of scheduled areas and may prohibit or restrict the transfer of tribal land, and may regulate the business of moneylenders
• 6th schedule
• It talks about autonomous districts and autonomous regions within districts. It also mentions autonomous district councils and autonomous regional councils and their powers to make laws. 
• It also defines tribal areas.
• Other articles
• Article 243 D- Reservation of seats for SC and STs in panchayats
• Article 243 T -Reservation of seats for SC and STs in Municipalities
• Article 330- Reservation of seats for SC and STs in the House of People
• Article 332- Reservation of seats for SC and STs in State legislative assemblies
• Article 46- It is a DPSP- Promotion of educational and economic interests of SCs and STs and other weaker sections
• Article 48 A- Protection and improvement of environment and safeguarding forest and wildlife. [* Forest means home of tribals]. 
• Article 29- Protection of interest of minorities 
• Article 30- Rights of Minorities to Establish and administer educational institutions
• Article 335- claims of SC/ST to services and posts shall be taken into consideration consistently with the maintenance of efficiency in administration. [* Example- ISRO chief choice should have no basis in any caste or religion]
• Article 31 A- Saving of laws @ acquisition of estates etc in the public interest  

The topic for the next class:- Schemes related to tribals, FRA 2006, PESA 1996, SC judgments related to Niamgiri hills, 1962 war.